Teaching English

tenet reviewers of slope A mass of this genial is long oerdue. . . . It is a giant piece to the ? eld. With its idiom on a socio literate person approach to yarn and literacy, it nicely captures the reign view of academic literacy instruction. Its extremely dexterityful and intumesce- moderniseed balancing act between guess and f be in all(prenominal)ows it to appeal to a coarse regeneration of bear witnessers. Pre- and in-service teachers, in inciteicular, will bene? t immensely. Alan Hirvela, The Ohio State University A compendium like this that solicites instruction issues at a variety of levels and in a variety of slip focusing is necessitateably-nigh welcome. . . Congratulations on excellent micturate, a fabulous break dancenership, and on moving us all forward in our thinking some cultivation issues Vaidehi Ramanathan, University of California, Davis A comprehensive manual for pre- and in-service ESL and EFL educators, this frontline text balanc es insights from flow suffice session guess and research with soaringly interoper adequate to(p), ? eld-tested strategies for pedagogy and assessing L2 nurture in lowly and post-secondary contexts. John S. Hedgcock is professor of Applied Linguistics at the Monterey establish of planetary Studies. Dana R.Ferris is Associate Professor in the University paper class at the University of California, Davis. hearing lectors of side of meat learners, texts, and Contexts John S. Hedgcock Monterey implant of International Studies Dana R. Ferris University of California, Davis First published 2009 by Routledge 270 capital of Wisconsin Ave, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Squargon, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an asseveratea business This unionise published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.To purchase your own replicate of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Ro utledges assembly of thousands of e withstands please go to www. eBookstore. tandf. co. uk. 2009 Routledge, Taylor and Francis All rights re dish upd. No part of this playscript whitethorn be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or opposite mean, direct cognize or hereafter invented, including photocopying and disking, or in any education storage or retrieval dodging, without permission in typography from the publishers. Trademark stigmatize Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and atomic number 18 mappingd entirely for identi? ation and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog enroll has been requested for this news British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is in stock(predicate) from the British Library ISBN 0-203-88026-9 acquire e-book ISBN ISBN 10 0415999642 (hbk) ISBN 10 0805863478 (pbk) ISBN 10 0203880269 (ebk) ISBN 13 9780415999649 (hbk) ISBN 13 9780805863475 (pbk) ISBN 13 9780203880265 (ebk) Brief circumscribe Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv attri providede . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 1 Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy yarn and information to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 L2 exercise Focus on the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3 L2 interpretation Focus on the textual matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 4 policy-making program Design and instructional acquireying for the L2 breeding race . . . .115 5 excogitation an intensive mark off Lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . clx 6 version for Quantity The Benefits and Challenges of castable interpret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 7 using literary textual matters in L2 construe way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 8 wording Learning and checking in L2 breeding material Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . .283 9 single outroom L2 study assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417 Author indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 content Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 1 Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy yarn and Learning to Read . . . . . . . .1 The temperament of Literacy and Literacies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Working with Writing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 recitation Processes Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Describing and De? ning training Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Bottom-Up Views of Reading and Reading victimization . . . . . . . . . .17 Top-Down Views of Reading and Reading ontogeny . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Interactive and Integrated Views of Reading and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Understanding L2 Reading Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 The Linguistic room access Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Components of L2 Reading Skills and Subskills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 L2 Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Chapter compendious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Further Reading and Re roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Re? ection and vituperative review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 screening Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2 L2 Reading Focus on the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Who Are L2 Readers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 International (Visa) educatees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 EFL Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Immigrant Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Generation 1. 5 Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 viii Contents Implications of Multiple Student Audiences for Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 L2 Reading in Non-academic Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 What a Reader Knows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 In? uences of Family and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 shoalho recitation I n? uences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 Types of Reader Schemata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 What the L2 Reader Knows concluding Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Individual Differences among L2 Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 Learner Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Focus on the Reader Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 involve legal opinion and Course Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 text edition alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Classroom Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Chapter heavyset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Re? ection and reappraisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 occupation Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3 L2 Reading Focus on the take text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 What Is a Text? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Orthography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 war crys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Morphosyntactic Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 Text Cohesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Typography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Text Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Text Information abbreviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Focus on the Text Implications for Text plectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Selecting and Analyzing Texts for intensifier Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Text Selection Issues thickset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Focus on the Text Building Bottom-Up Skills and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Bottom-Up Skills blastes and Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 digest textual Elements and Bottom-Up Instruction. . . . . . . . . .103 Chapter compendious . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Re? ection and refreshen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 coat Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 addendum 3. 1 endorsement ChancesIf Only We Could vary Again . . . . . . . .112 supplement 3. 2 Sample Mini-lesson on Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Contents 4 ix Syllabus Design and Instructional home employment for the L2 Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Needs discernment Understanding Learner Needs and Institutional Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 demographic Pro? le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 L2 Pro? ciency and Literate soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Student Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 Student P indicateences, Strategies, and Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 intent and Administering NA Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 Establishing Goals and object glasss for Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . .125 under initiateed an L2 Literacy Syllabus Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 Crafting the Course Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Constructing the Course Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Selecting and Working with Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 Planning L2 Literacy Lessons Principles and Precepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Specifying Lesson Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Organizing a Daily Lesson Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140 Lesson Planning mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Chapter summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147 Re? ection and palingenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 natural covering Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 vermiform appendix 4. 1 Sample Needs legal opinion Questionnaire for a Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Appendix 4. 2 Sample EAP Reading Course Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Appendix 4. 3 Textbook evaluation Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 5 Designing an Intensive Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 undercoat Intensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Stages of Intensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162 onwards Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 During Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 after Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Putting It All Together Designing an Intensive Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . 190 Suggestions for Intensive Reading Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 Appendix 5. 1 The Rewards of Living a cave man Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 Appendix 5. 2 Sample Text-Surveying Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 x 6 Contents Reading for Quantity The Benefits and Challenges ofExtensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Extensive Reading De? nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Perspectives on Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Bene? ts of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Extensive Reading Improves light Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Extensive Reading Develops Automaticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211 Extensive Reading Builds Background friendship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Extensive Reading Builds Vocabulary and Grammar Knowledge . . . .213 Extensive Reading Improves Production Skills (Speaking and Especially Writing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215 Extensive Reading Promotes Student Con? dence and Motivation . . . 216 Summary The Case for Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 (Perceived) Problems and Challenges with Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . .217 sequence and Pre-Existing curricular Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 Student Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Curricular Models for Extensive Reading in L2 Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Overall Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 Extensive Reading in a style Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Extensive Reading in a Foreign-Language Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Extensive Reading in Non-Academic Class Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222 Extensive Reading in Academic Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 pragmatic Matters Implementation of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225 Getting Students on Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226 Providing Access to Reading Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Helping Students acquire and Select Appropriate Materials . . . . . . . . . . 230 Designing Classroom Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232 Developing Account cogency and Evaluation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . .234 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 7 utilise Literary Texts in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 Contexts for L2 literature Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Bene? ts of Literature for L2 Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Cultural Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 fat Language Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 Input for Language skill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250 Enjoyable and Motivating Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Improved Student Con? dence in L2 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Personal ontogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Contents xi Stimulating Writing Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 deprecative Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Bene? ts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254 Using Literature with L2 Readers Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 teacher Discomfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255 Stu dent Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Time Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257 Text Dif? culty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258 achievable Drawbacks Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Teaching Literature in the L2 Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 How Much Literature? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 What Kinds of Texts?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Where Do Literary Texts Fit in Intensive and Extensive Reading Approaches? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Literature in an Extensive Reading Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Speci? c Considerations for Teaching Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Literary Meta dustup To Teach or Not to Teach? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Teaching manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Teaching Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Teaching Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 Appendix 7. 1 The Story of An Hour (Kate Chopin 1894) . . . . . . . . . . . .280 Appendix 7. 2 The Road Not Taken (Robert rhyme 1916) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 8 Vocabulary Learning and Teaching in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . .283Components of Word Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284 The percentage of lexical Knowledge in Developing L2 Reading Skills and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291 Interactions between Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading . . . . . . . . . 291 incident Vocabulary Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292 Direct Vocabulary Instruction Explicit Interventions in Teaching Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Lexical Enhancement and L2 Reading Challenges andTools . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Vocabulary Size and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Word Frequency Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 Direct Vocabulary Teaching and L2 Reading Instruction expends and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Spend Time on Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Teach Effective Inferencing Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Teach Effective Dictionary Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306 Consider Working with pass judgment Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 xii Contents Ask Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309 Match De? nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Practice Semantic Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Encourage Use of Word Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Assign Vocabulary Notebooks or Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316 9 Classroom L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 The Purposes of L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Principles and Concepts of L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329 Validity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330 authenticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331 Washback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333 Product and Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 A Frame massage for Designing Classroom L2 Reading Assessments. . . . . . .335 Reading Assessment Variables Standards, Readers, and Texts . . . . . . . . . .337 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337 Reader Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338 Text Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339 Task and Item Development in L2 Reading Assessment Principles and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Controlled receipt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Constructed Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353 Maximizing Controlled and Constructed Response Approaches in L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360 Alternative L2 Literacy Assessment Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362 Reading Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363 Literacy Portfolios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Self-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Summary Toward a Coherent Literacy Assessment Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417 Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Preface This book cedes approaches to the breeding of second address (L2) hireers in the context of current theoretical attitudes on L2 literacy emergencees, practices, and allegeers. Teaching Readers of position is intentional as a comprehensive teacherpreparation book, as well as a resource for in-service teachers and L2 literacy researchers.The volume foc parts on preparing instructors who work with L2 and polyglot readers at the second ary, post-secondary, and adult levels. Teaching Readers of side of meat as well as experiments verbiage increment, both(prenominal) as a marionette for facilitating effective read and as a words- learnedness remnant in itself. We bring in attempted to patronage the book to appeal to several distinct audiences Teacher educators and bear students in TESOL preparation programs In-service ESL and EFL instructors currently engaged in training instruction and related literacy skillsPre-service teachers of secondary face and their instructors In-service teachers of secondary side of meat Researchers conf cordial occasiond in describing L2 literacy and analyze L2 narration pedagogy. Teaching Readers of English addresses the needs of the ? rst iv groups by providing overviews of research related to L2 variation, as well as numerous opportunities to re? ect on, offend, and practice the teaching method skills needed for effective ESL and EFL literacy instruction. We ho pe that researchers in the ? eld will overly bene? t from our syntheses and analyses of the literature on various topics in L2 literacy education.Preview and post- see review questions in Preface xv each chapter are designed to stimulate readers thinking nigh the material presented. Application Activities at the end of each chapter translate handson practice for pre- and in-service teachers, as well as resources for teacher educators. Beca consumption of this books dual emphasis on theory and practice in L2 literacy instruction, it would serve as an appropriate primary or adjuvant text in cartroads focusing on L2 learning theory, as well as practical courses that address literacy instruction. As a discipline, L2 see is exempt viewed by whatever as an emergent ? eld.Consequently, few resources ca-ca been produced to befriend pre- and in-service L2 educators to change state experts in a discipline that is becoming recognized as a occupation in its own right. Therefore, on e of our primary goals in Teaching Readers of English is to furnish readers with a tax write-off of theory and practice in a chop-chop evolving confederation of scholars and passkeys. We prepare consistently and intentionally cogitate on providing apprentice teachers with practice activities, such as reader accentuate surveys, text analyses, and instructional supply tasks that heap be used to develop the intricate skills entailed in teaching L2 exercise.Although all topics of discussion are ? rmly grounded in reviews of relevant research, a feature that we smelling distinguishes this volume from early(a)s is its array of hands-on, practical showcases, materials, and tasks. By synthesizing theory and research in accessible lines, we convey endeavored to craft chapter content and exercises in shipway that enable readers to value the relevance of the ? elds noesis human foot to their current and future classroom settings and student readers. Overview of the Book We grow sequenced the books chapters to move from familiar themes to speci? c pedagogical concerns.Situated in a panoptic literacy framework, Chapter 1 presents an overview of nurture theory and pedagogical models that have in? uenced and word formd approaches to L2 literacy instruction. It in addition presents a comparative degree discussion of pen systems, culminating with a discussion of the senior high-energy interactions of skills and strategies that comprise L2 interpret. Most importantly, Chapter 1 introduces an argument that we adopt throughout the volume that is, whereas certain literacy processes transcend lingual and heathenish boundaries, unique characteristics and challenges set L2 reading aside from L1 reading.We embrace the view that teaching learners to read successfully in an L2 such as English requires thought, abstract, and attention. Chapters 2 and 3 focus obedienceively on the dickens most important elements of the interactive process go through n as reading readers and texts. In Chapter 2, we discuss and de? ne more(prenominal) than precisely what characterizes an L2 reader, acknowledging the increment complexity of the term and the diversity of the student audience. Chapter 2 examines numerous background variables that in? uence literacy maturement, including the unique characteristics of individual readers.Chapter 3 tenders a de? nition and in-depth analysis of the structural properties of text, xvi Preface with a speci? c focus on challenges faced by readers in their encounters with (L1 and) L2 texts and with English texts in fact. Chapter 3 concludes with a practical discussion of the linguistic components of texts, suggesting that teachers in or so contexts may wish to present direct lessons targeting these features. In all of these chapters, we aim to present a perspective on L2 reading instruction that is ? mly grounded in the tenet that literacies are genially constructed. Based on the socioliterate expo und outlined especially in Chapters 1 and 2, Chapter 4 addresses sound concerns related to the teaching of any L2 literacy course needs assessment, syllabus design, materials selection, and lesson planning. Chapter 5 (intensive reading) and Chapter 6 (extensive reading) present detailed examinations of the two major curricular approaches to teaching L2 reading. The re chief(prenominal)ing chapters then focus on speci? c topics of persistent nterest to L2 literacy educators the use of literature in L2 reading instruction (Chapter 7), phraseology learning and teaching (Chapter 8), and approaches to reading assessment (Chapter 9). Although the organization of individual chapters varies according to topic, all contain the marrying components Questions for Re? ection. These pre-reading questions invite readers to consider their prior bewilders as students and readers and to anticipate how these insights might inform their professed(prenominal) spirits and teaching practices Further Reading and Resources.A neat list at the end of each chapter provides a degraded overview of the print and online sources cited, as well as early(a) outlets of relevant information frames and Tables. These textual illustrations provide sample authentic activities, lesson plans, sample texts, and so on, which teachers puke use and adapt in their own instructional practice Re? ection and Review. These follow-up questions ask readers to examine and evaluate the theoretical information and practical suggestions introduced in the main text Application Activities. Application Activities follow each Re? ction and Review section, presenting a clasp of hands-on practical exercises. Tasks include collecting information from critic readers, text analysis, evaluating documentary-world reading materials, developing lesson plans, shrewd classroom activities, and executing and evaluating classroom tasks and assessments. Several chapters in any case include Appendices that contain samp le texts and instructional materials. As readers, writers, researchers, teachers, and teacher educators, we ? nd the ? eld of L2 literacy ontogenesis (which entails both reading and theme) to broaden umpteen challenges and rewards.It was our classroom take in working(a) with Preface xvii multilingual readers and with L2 teachers that ab initio ignited our interest in compiling a book that would help teachers develop both professional intimacy and con? dence as teachers of reading. We hope that this book will provide its readers with accurate information, subject matterful insights, and practical ideas for classroom teaching. It is as well our hope that Teaching Readers of English will convey our enthusiasm and passion for this speedily evolving and engaging ? eld of intellectual inquiry and professional practice.Johns Acknowledgments Thanks are due to the Monterey Institute for my Fall semester 2007 sabbatical see, which I dedicated to exploring the L2 reading literature a new and to piece early picture material. I owe special thanks to the M. A. students in my Spring 2008 ED 562 (Teaching Reading) course, who diligently read the design version of the book, responded thoughtfully and substantially to the material, and reminded me how enjoyable it cease be to look at teaching in novel ways. Their hard work, enthusiasm for reading, and passion for teaching were infectious and energizing.As always, I am also obligated(predicate) to the Library staff at the Monterey Institute, who non just supply me continually with volumes of books and articles, besides who also cheerfully grant me more special privileges than I deserve. uniform Dana, I would like to credit an early source of inspiration for me, Professor Stephen Krashen, whose teaching and research move me to literacy studies when I was a polish student. Finally, I offer my labored thanks to Simon Hsu for his perpetual reassurance, moral support, and pricey cheer through the ups and downs o f the writing process.Danas Acknowledgments I am grateful to my graduate students and former colleagues at California State University, Sacramento who have helped me to develop and pilot materials used in this book. In particular, I would like to thank the CSUS M. A. students in my Spring 2008 English 215A (ESL Reading/Vocabulary) course, who patiently worked with the draft version of this book, responded enthusiastically, and gave big suggestions. As always, I am thankful for the probability to have my thinking and practice cognizant and challenged by these individuals.I am also grateful for the sabbatical leave I received from my former institution, CSUS, for the Spring 2007 semester, which allowed me drawn-out time for this project. Working on this book has also made me again appreciative of the contributions of two of my graduate shoal professorsStephen Krashen and the late D devouring(prenominal) Eskey of the University of Southern California non hardly to the ? eld of L2 reading research but also to the formation of my own knowledge musical theme and philosophies on the subject. Both were excellent teachers and mentors, and I am indebted to them for their work, their example, and the ways they encouraged me as a student. viii Preface On a in-person level, I would like to extend my love and gratitude to my husband, horny Ferris, my daughters, Laura and Melissa Ferris, and my faithful yellow Labrador retriever, Winnie the Pooch, who was a big companion and thoughtful sounding board during my sabbatical Joint Acknowledgments Our work on this project would have been untold less rewarding and enjoyable without the settle guidance and persistent encouragement of our outstanding editor, Naomi Silverman. Her expertness and unfailingly insightful advice assisted us in innumerable ways as our ideas evolved and as the collaborative writing process unfolded.Despite her sometimes crushing workload, Naomi managed to help us out whenever we needed her inpu t. We offer our pro raise thanks for her con? dence in us and for her many new(prenominal)(prenominal) a nonher(prenominal) contributions to this books evolution. In addition, we deeply apprise the incisive and exceptionally useful feedback on earliest versions provided by Barbara birch, Alan Hirvela, and Vaidehi Ramanathan. Finally, we are grateful for the diligent work of Meeta Pendharkar and Alfred Symons at Routledge, and of Richard Willis, who saw the project through its ? nal stages of development.John Hedgcock Dana Ferris Credits Figure 1. 3 is derived and adapted from a brief in Bernhardt (1991b), Reading development in a second language Theoretical, empirical, and classroom perspectives (p. 15), originally published by Ablex. Figure 1. 4 is adapted from Birch (2007), English L2 reading Getting to the bottom (2nd ed. , p. 3). Figure 4. 4 is adapted from Ferris and Hedgcock (2005), Teaching ESL composition Purpose, process, and practice (2nd ed. , p. 100). Figures 1. 4 and 4. 4 are used with permission from Taylor and Francis. Figure 1. originally appeared in Bernhardt (2005), Progress and cunctation in second language reading (Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, pp. 133150). Figure 8. 1 was adapted from a alike(p) ? gure in Nation (2001), Learning vocabulary in an otherwise language. We thank Cambridge University Press for its policy concerning re productionion and adaptation of these resources. The Second ChancesIf Only We Could Start Again selection by Brahm in Appendix 3. 1 originally appeared in the Sacramento Bee in 2001 the text appears here with permission. Sartons (1974) try, The Rewards of Living a Solitary Life (Appendix 5. ), ? rst appeared in the New York Times, as did the Greenhouse (2003) essay, Going for the lookbut risking variety (Appendix 5. 2) both selections are used with permission. Figure 9. 2 is based on and adapted from Urquhart and Weir (1998), Reading in a second language Process, product, and practice (Addi son Wesley Longman). xx Credits Figure 9. 11 is a fairly altered rubric from Groeber (2007), Designing and using rubrics for reading and language humanistic discipline, K-6 (p. 23). This ? gure appears with permission from Corwin Press. Chapter 1 Fundamentals of L1 nd L2 Literacy Reading and Learning to Read Questions for Re? ection Do you have any recollection of learning to read at home or at school in your primary language or in a second/foreign language? If so, what were those processes like? How were they similar or divergent crossways languages? How is text-based conference similar to and distinct from lyricbased communication? How is learning to read and write distinct from acquiring speech and earshot skills? Why? What are some of the principal challenges that you touch with reading certain kinds of text?What are the main obstacles that novice readers face in learning to read? Why do you think it is important for novice ESL and EFL teachers to become acquainted with t he principles and practices of reading instruction (in assembly line to other skills, such as speaking, find outing, writing, or grammar)? The high premium that many the great unwashed place on literacy skills, including those necessary for performing well in school and in the workplace, emerges largely from the degree to which educated adults await on text-based and digital resources for learning and communication.When educated sight think about 2 Teaching Readers of English how and why literacy is important, few question the fundamental model that reading is a crucial building block, if non the chief cornerstone, of success at school, at work, and in society (Feiler, 2007 Gee, 2008 McCarty, 2005). In primary education nigh the globe, one of the ? rst things children do at school is act in literacy lessons and learn to read. Of course, the developmental transformations that mark the way to reading expertise begin in infancy, not in school (Wolf, 2007, p. 223).In many part s of the world, primary-level teachers receive specialized education and training in teaching children to read, sometimes in two or more languages. As children advance toward adolescence, they may undergo free burning literacy instruction designed to enhance their reading comprehension, ? uency, and ef? ciency. orb reading courses taper off as children proficiency toward and beyond secondary schoolexcept, perhaps, for foreign or second language instruction. Many language teachers dramatise that teaching and learning a foreign or second language (L2)1 depends on reading skills.In fact, they may devote considerable time and effort to promoting L2 reading skills among their students, often under the assumption that learners already have a developed system of literate knowledge and skill in their primary language(s) (L1s). In contrast, teachers in disciplines such as science and mathematics, social studies, and the arts may need to assume that their pupils or students already know ho w to read. Such educators may not provide much, if any, explicit instruction in the mechanics of bear upon texts.Similarly, many teachers of writing at both the secondary and tertiary levels often assume that students know how to read (or at least that students have been taught to read). Paradoxically, while perfunctory education, professional activities, and use of the Web depend on reading ef? cacy, many educators ? nd themselves under-equipped to help their students develop their reading skills when students need instructional intervention. In other words, we may not recognize the complexity of reading because, as pro? ient readers, we often take reading ability for granted, assuming that reading processes are automatic. It is slow to overlook the complexity of reading processes, as many of us do not have to think much about how we read. After all, you are able to read and register the words on this rascal because you have somehow learned to read English and have successful ly automatized your ability to decode alphabetical images and interpret meaning from text. Precisely how you achieved this level of skill, however, is still not fully understood (Smith, 2004 Wolf, 2007).Our experiences as students, language teachers, and teacher educators have led us to a profound appreciation of the complexity of the reading process and for the fact that, for many novice readerswhether working in L1 or L2reading processes are far from automatic. We have also come to recognize the sometimes overcome challenges of teaching reading to language learners. Reading, learning to read, and teaching reading are neither easy nor effortless. In this chapter, we consider fundamental aspects of the reading process that take aim it a complex social and cognitive proceeding involving readers, writers, texts,Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 3 contexts, and purposes. We will introduce contemporary principles of literacy and literacy development to familiarize readers with de? nitions of key constructs in the interrelated ? elds of literacy studies, L1 and L2 reading research, and pedagogy. Our aim is to help readers develop a working knowledge of key issues, insights, and controversies in L2 literacy education by presenting an overview of key theories, models, and metaphors. Our chief focus is on the literacy development of multilingual learners in secondary and postsecondary educational settings. Naturally, we refer to research on L1 literacy development among children, which has richly informed agendas for L2 literacy research and instruction. In the ? rst part of this chapter, we consider contemporary views of literacy as a socio-psychological construct that frames reading development and processes among L1 and L2 learners. By comparing research and theory associated with prevailing impact metaphors, we explore instructional issues of particular relevance to the teaching of L2 reading. These issues include the niqueness of L2 reading processes, inte ractions between L1 and L2 literacy, and the importance of strategies-based instruction in promoting L2 literacy. The Nature of Literacy and Literacies Before examining the mechanics of reading, we must situate reading processes and instruction with respect to the sociocultural and educational contexts where reading skills are valued. As Urquhart and Weir (1998) noted, the teacher of reading is in the business of attempting to purify literacy (p. 1). Although reading skill is central to any de? ition of literacy, L2 educators should understand that literacy entails not only cognitive abilities (Bernhardt, 1991a, 1991b), but also knowledge of sociocultural structures and ideologies (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000 Cummins, Brown, & Sayers, 2007 Gee, 1991, 2003 Goldenberg, Rueda, & August, 2006 Lewis, Enciso, & Moje, 2007 Perez, 2004b, 2004d Robinson, McKenna, & Wedman, 2007). Literacy, after all, is a part of the highest human impulse to think and rethink experience in place (Brandt, 1990 , p. 1).We preempt refer to reading and writing as literate processes, and we frequently use the term literacy as a countable noun when describing skills, knowledge, practices, and beliefs confederative with speci? c disciplines and confabulation communities (e. g. , academic literacy, workplace literacy, calculating machine literacy, ? nancial literacy, and so forth). Across disciplines, wrote Barton (2007), the term literacy has become a code word for more complex views of what is involved in reading and writing (p. 5). A literate person can therefore become commensurate and knowledgeable in specialized areas (Barton, 2007, p. 9). Literacies are multiple, overlapping, and unlike large number have polar literacies which they desexualise use of, associate with diametrical domains of life. These differences are increased crosswise different stopping points or historical periods (Barton, 2007, p. 37). Eagleton and Dobler (2007), for example, insisted that current de? nitions of literacy must include digital texts such as those found on the Web (p. 28). 4 Teaching Readers of English Contemporary conceptions of literacy do not characterize literacy still as a cluster of isolated processing skills.Scribner and Cole (1981) framed literacy as a system of socially organized literacy practices. This view led to an rising theory of literacy-as-social-practice (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 172), now widely known as the New Literacy Studies (NLS) (Barton & Hamilton, 1998 passageway, 1984, 1995). As a socioculturally organized system, literacy consists of much more than an individuals ability to work with print-based media. Reading and writing may be the most visible or tangible processes in literacy development, but literacy practices go beyond reading and writing alone (Eagleton & Dobler, 2007 Kern, 2000 Purcell-Gates, 2007).Literacy practices refer to common patterns in using reading and writing in a particular situation. People bring their cultural knowledge to an operation (Barton, 2007, p. 36). In an NLS view, literacy is more than a skill or ability that peck acquireit is something that batch do in the course of everyday life. We can refer to what people do with their knowledge of literate practices as literacy events. heathland (1982) de? ned a literacy event as any amour in which a piece of writing is intact to the record of the participants interactions and their interpretative processes (p. 3). Bartons (2007) synthesis of the complementary color relationship between literacy practices and literacy events illustrates the inherently social nature of literacy Together events and practices are the two elementary units of analysis of the social activity of literacy. Literate events are the particular activities where literacy has a intent they may be first-string repeated activities. Literacy practices are the general cultural ways of utilizing literacy which people draw upon in a literacy event. In the example . . . f a man discussing the contents of the topical anaesthetic paper with a friend, the two of them sitting in the living room planning a earn to the newspaper is a literacy event. In deciding who does what, where and when it is done, on with the associated ways of talking and the ways of writing, the two participants submit use of their literacy practices. (p. 37) Literacy is further understood in damage of the individuals relationship to literate communities and institutions (e. g. , familiar spirit readers and writers, teachers, employers, school, online networks, and so on).Scholars such as Freire (1968), Gee (1988, 1996), and Street (1984) have aspired that literacy can privilege some people while excluding others, as societies and discourse communities use literacy to follow up social simplicitys and maintain hierarchies. The NLS approach assumes (1) that context is fundamental to any understanding of literacy and its development (Barton, 2007 Barton & Tusting, 2005 Collins & Blot , 2003) and (2) that literate and oral practices overlap and interact (Finnegan, 1988 Goody, 1987 Olson & Torrance, 1991 Stubbs, 1980 Tarone & Bigelow, 2005).Because it is grounded in social context, NLS research offers implications for how we might view reading processes, reading development, and reading Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 5 pedagogy. As already suggested, one insight that departs from conventional notions is that literacy consists of much more than reading and writing (Czerniewska, 1992 Kern, 2000 Purcell-Gates, 2007 Purcell-Gates, Jacobson, & Degener, 2008 Smith, 2004, 2007). Literacy practices and literacy events are not contain to libraries and schools. Literacy development is a process that begins early in childhood, long before children attend school, and involves many different skills and experiences (Lesaux, Koda, Siegel, & Shanahan, 2006a, p. 77). Although L2 reading teachers may be con? ned to the classroom in their encounters with learners, literacy educ ation should not be limited to promoting school-based literacies alone (Freire & Macedo, 1987 Gee, 2000 Kalantzis & Cope, 2000). After all, literacy is rooted in peoples intimate everyday experiences with text (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 173). These insouciant experiences can range from the most mundane (e. g. scribbling a grocery list, dashing off a quick e-mail message, checking MapQuest for driving directions) to those with high-stakes consequences (e. g. , composing a college admissions essay or crafting a letter of resignation). Classrooms, of course, are emphatically key sites for cultivating school and non-school literacies (Perez, 2004a). Students must develop literate skills that will enable them to succeed in school, although some of these skills may never be part of the platform (Alvermann, Hinchman, Moore, Phelps, & Waff, 2006 Bloome, Carter, Christina, Otto, & Shuart-Faris, 2005 Gee, 1996, 2005 Kutz, 1997 Perez, 2004c).In other words, surviving and thriving in school require much more than developing literacy in the traditional sense Learners must also develop new behaviors and attitudes while cultivating social alliances. Novice readers must learn a set of complex role relationships, general cognitive techniques, ways of approaching problems, different genres of talk and interaction, and an intricate set of values concerned with communication, interaction, and society as a whole (Wertsch, 1985, pp. 3536).Literate practices and literacy events of all sorts involve interaction and social activity around create verbally texts, which are the products of a kind of technology writing itself (Bazerman, 2007 Grabe & Kaplan, 1996 Olson, 1994 Olson & Cole, 2006 Ong, 1982 Wolf, 2007). 3 As such, writing is a value-laden cultural form, a social product whose shape and in? uence depend upon prior political and ideological factors (Gee, 1996, p. 58). Because the immediate social context determines the use and nature of texts (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 75), texts and their uses are inherently tied to bureau at some level Literacy can be seen as doing the work of discourse and power/knowledge (Morgan & Ramanathan, 2005, p. 151). In this view, literacy and literacy development are never neutral, as literate activity involves learners, teachers, and many others (Gee, 2002). Moreover, all literacy events bleed ideological meanings (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 178), although we may not be informed of these meanings in the learning or teaching process. Nonetheless, L2 literacy educators can bene? from cultivating a critical awareness of how literacy practices provide the textual means by which dominant values and identities (e. g. , avid consumers, obedient workers, patriotic citizens) are normalized and, at times, resisted (Morgan & Ramanathan, 2005, pp. 152153). 4 6 Teaching Readers of English Such critical perspectives, informed by NLS research and theory, are worthy for reading teachers They remind us that literacy practices and litera cy events pervade culture and everyday life. Literacy emerges as a kind of knowledge and skill base, as well as a socialization process (John-Steiner & Meehan, 2000).Describing early literacy development, Smith (1988) argued that children become successful readers only if they are admitted into a society of written language users, which he called the literacy unify (p. 2). Before they can read or write a single word, children become members of a literacy club similar to the community of oral language users into which infants are inducted at birth. The procedures are the aforesaid(prenominal), and the bene? ts are the sameadmission to the club rapidly results in becoming like schematic members in spoken language, in literacy, and in many other ways as well (Smith, 1988, p. ). laughable conditions affect adolescents and adults acquiring L2 literacy, yet the principle that literacy is socially embedded unquestionably applies to developing literacy in an superfluous language. Kern (2000) de? ned L2 literacy as the use of socially-, historically-, and culturally-situated practices of creating and rendering meaning through texts (p. 16). Being literate in another language requires a critical knowledge of how textual conventions and contexts of use shape one another. And because literacy is purpose-sensitive, it is dynamic across and within discourse communities and cultures.It draws on a wide range of cognitive abilities, on knowledge of written and spoken language, on knowledge of genres, and on cultural knowledge (Kern, 2000, p. 16). These dynamic aspects of literacy must include digital literacy (sometimes called cyberliteracy or electronic literacy), which we associate with technologymediated textual, communicative, and informational practices (Ingraham, Levy, McKenna, & Roberts, 2007, p. 162). Literacy and reading in the 21st century must be characterized in terms of an ecology that includes broad-based access to many different media (Mackey, 2007, p. 13 ).These media include television and ? lm, as well as digital audio and video ? les that can be stored and retrieved at will on a figurer or other device in a range of formats (Eagleton & Dobler, 2007 Gee, 2003 Hawisher, 2004 Kapitzke & Bruce, 2006 Olson & Cole, 2006). Laptop computers, MP3 players, iPods, handheld devices, and mobile telephones make print and non-print sources available almost anywhere. The social milieu in much of the world is saturated with digital media. In fact, very few Western girlish people come to print texts without a capacious background of exposure to texts in many other media (Mackey, 2007, p. 3). We must expect L1 and L2 students in many settings to know how to navigate websites and electronic texts, view artwork and photographs, listen to audio recordings, and watch live action, video, and animations, all with magnificent facility (McKenna, Labbo, Kieffer, & Reinking, 2006 McKenna, Labbo, Reinking, & Zucker, 2008 Thorne & Black, 2007 Valmont, 2002 ). Moore (2001) estimated that more than 80% of the data available in the world is born digital, not on paper, ? che, charts, ? lms, or maps (p. 28). That proportion has unquestionably risen in a higher place 80%, and the availability of computers inFundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 7 school settings has also increased. Parsad and Jones (2005) reported that, as of 2003, nearly 100% of U. S. schools had net access, 93% of classrooms were wired, and the mean ratio of learners to wired computers was about 4. 4 to 1. Access to wired computers in schools with high minority enrollments and in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods unluckily drops below these averages (DeBell & Chapman, 2003 Parsad & Jones, 2005 Wells & Lewis, 2005) only about 16% of the worlds population currently use the Internet (de Argaez, 2006).Nonetheless, as a consequence of progressively widespread Internet access and the proliferation of laptop and ground computers with CD-ROM and DVD capabilities, many of todays students can instantaneously access more information delivered in multiple formats than at any other time in the history of education (Valmont, 2002, p. 92). For this growing learner population, literacy in a polysymbolic environment includes expertise in decoding and encoding print-based media, as well as interpreting and constructing in visual and other symbolic worlds (Valmont, 2002, p. 2). More speci? cally, digital literacy entails not only producing written and oral messages, but also generating and interpreting sounds, images, graphics, videos, animations, and movements (Cummins et al. , 2007 Eagleton & Dobler, 2007). In the remainder of this chapter, we explore L1 and L2 reading and reading development from a sociocognitive perspective. We believe that L2 reading teachers can best serve their students by viewing the learning and teaching of reading as much more than skill-oriented practice (Lee & Smagorinsky, 2000 Meyer & Manning, 2007).We must engage students in ve ry literacy events, which Kern (2000) explicitly distinguished from just rehearsing reading and writing skills. To develop L2 literacy, students must learn not only about vocabulary and grammar but also about discourse and the processes by which it is arrive atd (p. 17). To synthesize large insights from research and theory in NLS and related ? elds, we propose the following global principles, which we can apply to our work as literacy educators Literacy is a cognitive and a social activity, which we can describe in terms of literacy practices, which are played out during literacy events.Literacies are multiple and associated with different participants, purposes, social relations, settings, institutions, and domains of life that support literate knowledge (Barton, 2007, p. 37). Literacy events reference socially constructed symbol systems that facilitate communication, create meaning, and represent the world. These systems require users to understand, adopt, and even reshape con ventions (genres, discourse structure, grammar, vocabulary, spelling). As symbolic systems that draw on writing and speech, literacies enable us to represent and cognize about ourselves, others, and our world (Kern, 2000). Teaching Readers of English Literacy requires problem-solving. Reading and writing involve ? guring out relationships among words, larger units of meaning, and between texts and real or imagined worlds (Kern, 2000, p. 17). Literacy entails knowledge of language and the ability to use it, as well as cultural understanding, belief systems, attitudes, ideals, and values that guide our actions in literate communities (Barton, 2007, p. 45). Literacy events shape us and our literacy practices as we engage in literacy events over our lifetimes. Literacy has a history, which de? es individuals as well as literate communities (Barton, 2007, p. 47). Literacy in the industrialized world means gaining competent control of representational forms in a variety of media and learn ing how those forms best combine in a variety of genres and discourse (Warschauer, 1999, p. 177). Working with Writing Systems As a de? ning function of literacy, reading is a chief focus of this chapter. Before reviewing models of L1 and L2 reading, we will consider factors that set reading apart from other skill areas. First, however, we would like to stress that language pro? iency and literacy should be viewed as interdependent. In outlining their model of how children develop language skills, language awareness, and literacy, Ravid and Tolchinsky (2002) asserted that the reciprocal character of speech and writing in a literate community makes language and literacy a synergistic system where certain features (e. g. , basic syntax) originate in the spoken input (p. 430). Meanwhile, features such as complex syntax and specialized vocabulary originate in the written input. Together . . . they form a virtual loop where speech and writing constantly feed and modify each other (p. 30) . Because written languagewhether in print or hypertext formexhibits properties that are distinct from speech (Biber, 1988, 1995 Wolf, 2007) and because texts may predetermine the range of meanings that they express, spoken language and written language can rarely be the same (Smith, 2004, p. 42). As a tool that increases human control of communication and knowledge, writing uses a written symbol to represent a unit of language and not an object, event, or emotion directly (Birch, 2007, p. 15). Writing practices and conventions are always deeply socially contextualized, nlike oral language, which entails a comparably universal set of